T.R. Michels' White-tailed Deer Management Articles

White-tailed deer in the northern and mid-latitude states should be on their winter home ranges, looking for remaining/preferred food sources. In some areas there may still be some fawns getting bred. In the south they may still be on fall ranges, and still breeding.

Coping with Communicable Diseases

Because the spread of diseases such as Tuberculosis, Chronic Wasting Disease Necrobacillosis is a concern in areas of high deer concentrations (such as the Midwest and Southeast), and since baiting and feeding has been banned in many states, because of the fear of the spread of contagious diseases, you should probably no longer feed deer or provide them with minerals in those areas. If you want to increase the overall health of the deer in areas where the spread of disease is a concern you can still provide adequate winter d nutrition by planting food plots designed for winter feeding and, by providing adequate browse during the winter months.

A recent research paper from the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Wildlife Research Center, in Fort Collins, Colorado, and the Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, in Laramie, Wyoming states, "Epidemics of contagious prion diseases can be perpetuated by horizontal (animal to animal) and maternal (dam to offspring, before or after birth) transmission, but the relative importance of each mechanism is unclear. Here we compare the incidence of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in captive mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) that is attributable to horizontal or maternal transmission. We find that horizontal transmission is remarkably efficient, producing a high incidence of disease (89%) in a cohort of deer in which maternal transmission was improbable. Our results indicate that horizontal transmission is likely to be important in sustaining CWD epidemics." In short, this study has put to rest the debate about whether or not CWD is a transmissible disease. Deer can get CWD from their mothers, or from other deer.

In areas where the spread of diseases is not a concern you can provide the deer with supplemental feed and minerals in the winter. From March till spring green-up, the protein content of your supplemental feed for deer should be around 20%-30%. This can be achieved by mixing 1 part 30% protein to 1 part corn. The protein content of the food at this time should be around 12 percent. As February comes around more protein in the form of pellets should be added to the feed. As natural food sources are depleted during the winter the protein content of the deer feed should be increased by about two percent each month until spring, when it should reach roughly 20 percent.

Do Your Deer Need Winter Nutrition?

Before you begin a winter supplemental nutrition program or plan a winter food plot make sure these food sources will be used by the deer, or some other species such as turkeys. Deer in many northern and mountainous regions migrate out of their summer/fall home ranges during the winter. The deer you see in the summer, and hunt in the fall and early winter months, may not stay in those same areas during the winter. If deer or other hunted species do not use the area during the winter there may be no need to provide winter nutrition sources, especially supplemental foods, in that area.

Winter Nutritional Needs

If you haven't already started a supplemental nutrition plan, late fall/early winter is a good time to start thinking about it, because late winter means a reduction in food sources for deer, while the nutrition needs of the deer increases. In northern climates cold weather, high wind chills, and damp weather cause heat loss in the animals. In order to maintain a high metabolism to keep warm the deer have to burn calories; they must either find carbohydrate and fat rich foods, or utilize their own existing fat reserves. Walking through heavy snow and ranging long distances in search of foods in the winter also burns calories, which means the deer must find food to maintain fat reserves and body heat.

In order for the bucks to get a jump-start on good antler growth they need to come through the winter in good health. But, because bucks use up so much energy during the rut, and lose so much of their fat reserves during the winter, they often come into the spring in poor shape, which hinders their antler growth. To help the bucks grow better racks, and come through the winter in better shape, you may want to provide the deer with food plots or supplemental feed. High carbohydrate food plots like corn and soybeans are beneficial to both bucks and does in early winter.

Legumes such as alfalfa, Austrian winterpea, berseem clover, crimson clover, hairy vetch, ladino clover (osceola, regal, tripoli,) and partridge pea can provide winter food sources for deer in the south.. Some of these same legumes may also provide winter food sources for deer in the northern states; check with your local seed company, county extension agent or wildlife nutrionist.

Plants that are not often mentioned when it comes to food plots are forbes. Any good source of information on deer foods mentions forbes; forbes are often referred to as wild flowers. Some of the best forbes to plant for deer are birdsfoot trefoil, cicer milkvetch, crownvetch, kale, lespedeza (Bi-color, Kobe, Korean, Serecia), small burnett and rape.

Minerals With the coming of spring, minerals are needed by both the bucks and does, as the bucks develop new racks and the does continue fetus growth. To adequately provide mineral for all of the deer you should have one mineral lick for each forty acres of land. The licks should be placed in high use areas with adequate cover so that the animals readily find and use them. Minerals are most easily utilized by deer in a granular form. They should be supplied on the ground in a sheltered area where they won't be washed away, or in a covered bin.

January; Post Rut

During January whitetail deer may begin to move to their winter ranges, especially in the northern states, where the weather gets cold, the snow gets deep, the crops have been picked and the rut should be almost over. Some does, and in the north, doe fawns, may still be bred at this time. The bucks may continue to rub and scrape sporadically, especially in mid and southern states.

Home Range

Before we can discuss feeding programs it's necessary to understand how deer use the habitat and how their use of the habitat changes throughout the year. There has been a lot written and said about whitetail home ranges; most of it based on the knowledge of deer in particular areas, or in particular types of habitat. However, whitetails inhabit many different types of habitats: dense hardwood forests, mixed woodland and agricultural, prairie, southern swamp, northern tamarack bogs, open or dense coniferous forests, open agricultural, semi-open river bottoms, and various mountain types. Because of this wide range of habitats the daily habits of whitetails, their home ranges, core areas, and the use of bedding sites varies.

The deer herds in each area are usually made up of a doe and her female offspring, and their female offspring, etc. As long as there is available habitat, and there is not a lot of competition for home ranges, the young females usually remain in the area where they were born. With death from natural causes and hunting there are often available home ranges for the young deer to occupy. Both bucks and does may make excursions outside their home ranges, but they usually do so only to find a new home range, or during the rut. Young bucks are generally driven off the home range by their mothers when they are a year and a half old, usually before the rut. However, some young bucks may stay on their mothers home range until their second year, when they leave to find their own home range. These one and a half and two and a half year old bucks often end up on home ranges in less preferred habitat.

The geography of the area and the type of habitat often restrict the size of the home range; mountains, ridges, bluffs, rivers, ravines, wooded areas and open areas limit deer movement. The lack of cover in open prairies or agricultural areas restricts deer movement, particularly during the day. Because of this, deer home ranges are often confined to preferred habitat in valleys or river drainage's and the surrounding hills and woods. Because of the limited size of the habitat, the home ranges of several deer often overlap.

The type and amount of food and cover determine how many deer the habitat can hold; and the number of deer in the habitat affects the size of the home range of the deer. Deer in prime mixed habitats, with abundant food sources, generally have smaller home ranges (from 60-1000+ acres) than deer in open coniferous forests, where food sources are low and widely scattered (up to 20+ square miles).

Climate directly affects the time of year, the length of the home range, and the use of the home range by the deer. In mild mid-west or southern climates whitetails may have home ranges no longer than two miles, and they often have traditional core areas. Deer in colder northern open prairie or foothill habitat may have larger home ranges (up to 120+ miles in South Dakota), and are less likely to have traditional core areas.

The climate and the number of bucks and does in the area affect the size of the home ranges of the buck, especially during the rut. Buck home ranges are generally larger than doe home ranges; often two or more times the size of local doe ranges; and the bucks use of their home ranges varies by the season. Bucks in mixed woodland/agricultural habitat in the mid-west may have home ranges of less than a thousand acres, to five or more square miles in size. During the summer adult bucks may use only a small portion of their home range. But, during the rut, adult buck home ranges often expand to include portions of several nearby doe and other buck home ranges.

Annual Home Range

The annual home range of each deer consists of the area used by the individual throughout the year. Non-migratory deer may spend both the summer and winter on the same home range. However, migratory deer in the northern states or mountainous regions may have two or more widely separated home ranges used during different times of the year. Dr.'s Larry Marchinton, Karl Miller and other researchers have found that the home ranges of whitetails are generally elongated, from two to four times longer than they are wide. However, deer in open coniferous or agricultural habitat may have irregular or circular home ranges.

Seasonal Home Ranges

In most areas even non-migratory whitetails use four different home ranges; one each for winter, spring, summer and fall. In general, one end of the seasonal home range consists of the "core area" and daytime bedding sites, often in a wooded area, where the deer spend most of the day. Again, in general, the other end of the seasonal home range consists of an open feeding area, where the deer spend most of the night, and where they have night bedding sites. Buck home ranges may be from two to five times the size of doe ranges during the rut, but they often restrict their movements to a small core area during the winter, spring and summer.

These seasonal home ranges may be several miles apart, or they may overlap each other. In some cases the core area of the individual deer may be the same, but the area and size of the habitat may vary. The deer may use the northern area of its habitat in the summer and the southern area in the winter. It may use wooded areas in the winter to stay warm and open areas in the summer to stay cool.

In some areas whitetails may move several miles in the spring and fall as a result of snow depths, flooding or lack of food. The availability of food and the type of cover needed by the deer during each season determine which part of the annual home range the deer will use. Deer using a soybean field in August may move several miles away during the rut or the hunting season. What this means is that the deer you see and hunt in the fall may not be there for you to feed in the winter, they may be miles away. If they aren't, and there are no other deer in the area, there is no reason to feed in that area. Before you begin a feeding program, determine how many deer there are in the area; and when and where the deer use the area during the year.

This article is an excerpt from the Whitetail Manager's Manual ($19.95 + $5.00 S&H), by T.R. Michels, available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

December: Pre Late Breeding Phase, Late Breeding Phase and Post Rut

From early to late December those does that did not conceive earlier may come into a late estrus, and older, unhealthy and fawn does may come into estrus now. Both dominant and subdominant bucks may start cruising, scraping and chasing does. By late December most of the breeding is done and the bucks may return to their core areas to rest up after the rut, and feed to put on the weight they lost during the rut, so they can make it through the winter. Depending on the severity of the weather, the snow depth, and the availability of food sources, the deer may shift from fall home ranges to winter home ranges, in some areas they may migrate from a less than one mile, to several miles. Buy feed and supplements for winter feeding.

Buck Nutrition After The Rut

After the stress of the rut the bucks have lot of body fat, and some of them may be injured. In order to come through the winter in good shape, and to produce good racks for the next year they need to replenish their fat reserves. And although they may not start growing new racks for a month or more, they still need minerals. If bucks don't have enough feed in the winter they may start burning muscular tissue (which is largely protein) just to survive. Then, in the spring, the first available protein they ingest will be diverted to replace crucial muscle tissue, and there will be little surplus for the critical beginning of antler growth. Whether you are trying to produce larger racks, or simply keep a healthy herd, you should try to provide sufficient fat reserves before winter, and during the winter, to avoid protein tissue loss. You should also be sure to provide sufficient protein and mineral so that you don't inhibit muscular and antler growth in the spring.

Even though you may have been feeding deer throughout the summer and fall, winter feeding may not benefit the deer you hunt. In many areas deer migrate from summer/fall ranges to winter/spring home ranges. What this means is that the bucks you saw and were hunting in the summer and fall may not be using the same areas where you saw them or where you hunted them in the fall; they may be miles away. Before you start a winter nutrition program you should determine if te deer are still using the area where you have been feeding them. If they are not, and you don't have access to the areas they use in the winter/spring, there may be no reason to provide winter nutrition. If you have access to the areas the deer use in the winter, or the deer are still using the area, you can institute a winter nutrition program by providing food plots, supplemental feed and minerals.

The placement of winter food sources, supplemental feeds, and minerals, is often crucial in the winter. If the deer have to spend a lot of time moving to food sources, spend to much time in the open when it is cold and windy, or travel too far through deep snow, they may actually burn more calories going to fed than they gain in feeding. What you want to do is be sure the food is close to the core areas of the deer, in areas where they don't have to travel through too much snow, and where they are out of cold winter winds. Ideal locations for winter feeding are the downwind sides of hills and woods, and in south facing areas where the snow may melted off by the sun, and where the deer may benefit from solar warming.

In many areas, especially where the winter winds come out of the north or the northwest, this means a southeast facing slope not far from a wooded area. One other thing to consider when you are winter feeding is to plant winter food plots or provide supplemental in more than one area if possible, so that not too many deer rely on one food source. Research has shown that when an over abundance of deer frequent winter food sources, they often stay in the area. This may lead to habitat destruction and the spread of disease. Scatter food sources out by a half mile or more if possible, and provde adequate food at each location to provide for most of the deer in each area.

This article is an excerpt from the Whitetail Manager's Manual ($19.95 + $5.00 S&H), by T.R. Michels, available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

November Primary Breeding Phase, Post Primary Breeding Phase and Rest Phase

By early November scraping may have already peaked. From early to late November the majority of the does should be in estrus, and the bucks should be cruising, chasing and breeding does, which causes scraping and rubbing to tail off. But, the bucks may still be scraping and checking scrapes near nighttime food sources, and in travel corridors. Scout to locate buck rub routes and feeding areas, back track rub routes to locate buck core areas and bedding sites. Hunt all day. By mid to late November many of the older does have been bred, and some of the older bucks may return to their core areas to rest, where you can hunt them during the day. Some older does may still be in estrus and some doe fawns may come into estrus. Some older bucks may continue scraping and some younger bucks may begin scraping as they look for does. Hunt all day.

How Nutrition and Health Affect Breeding Activity

It's not often talked about, but researchers have discovered that poor nutrition can affect not only the timing of the rut, but also the activities of the rut. During one of Karl Miller and Larry Marchinton's studies in Georgia it was found that the number of rubs in an area were related to the mast (acorn) abundance, and that during years of little mast production, rub densities were reduced by thirty to sixty percent. Rubs were less common in pine and mixed pine-oak stands than in oak or primarily oak and pine stands. It was thought that the presence of rubs in mast producing areas was because of the type of food, not necessarily because of the type of trees in the area. Regeneration areas and cove hardwood types were avoided as rub sites on all the Georgian study areas, and old field situations were highly favored as rub sites. I find this to be true in the upper Midwest too; bucks rub more near oaks when they are dropping acorns, and near agricultural and old field edges, than they do in dense hardwood forests. But, I have seen numerous rubs near old clear cuts and old fields that have begun to regenerate with saplings. I suspect that rubbing in agricultural areas may be dependent on not only the amount of acorns available, but also on the type and amount of other preferred food sources in the fall. Because the condition of the deer in the Georgia study was highly dependent on acorns, and their physical condition was poor because of low acorn production, it resulted in a less intense rut. The deer were simply not healthy enough to be as active as they would normally be during the rut. If the deer in your area suffer from poor nutrition, because acorn or other mast production is down, or because agricultural crop production is low, you may see less rubbing (and possibly scraping) than normal. Poor nutrition may also result in less daytime trolling, chasing and breeding activity, resulting in a longer than normal breeding phase.

There is also evidence that poor nutrition and health may cause does to come into a later than normal first estrus, or not come into estrus at all. Poor nutrition can affect late born doe fawns (which might breed during their first year if they are healthy), older does, and does that bred late the year before. Does that breed late, give birth late and wean their fawns late, which means they may be nutritionally stressed during the fall. Any doe that nurses is stressed, and the more fawns the doe has the more stressed it is. Studies of over 1,600 does in Minnesota show that 15-20 percent of the adult and yearling does may be bred after the third week of November, and that up to 50 percent of the yearling does may breed after December first. It has also been stated that poor nutrition in a doe may result in later development of her fawns, and of her fawns eventual offspring. What this all means is that the timing of the rut, winter survival of adult deer, reproduction rates, and fawn survival are dependent on good herd nutrition and health. If the deer are nutritionally stressed, during any one year, it may affect breeding activity and survival rates for the next few years, and for the next few generations of the deer.

This article is an excerpt from the Whitetail Manager's Manual ($19.95 + $5.00 S&H), by T.R. Michels, available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

September Deer Management

In the northern and mid-latitude states September is the Pre-Rut/Rubbing Phase and Transition Phase. All of the deer are bulking up for the rut and winter; feeding on alfalfa, clover, green forbes (wild flowers), ripening soybeans and corn in some areas, and mast (acorns, beechnuts). Put out mineral licks and deer attractants in areas where you want deer to come to during the hunting season.

Early in the month the bucks should be shedding velvet, and creating rubs and scrapes near late summer nighttime food sources. They may be still traveling together, and may begin sparring at this time. Later in the month both the bucks and does may move to fall home ranges. With their testosterone levels rising the bucks are less tolerant of each other, fighting may begin, and the buck groups break up as the bucks begin to establish breeding ranges. Scout to find out where the deer currently are; watch food sources for feeding deer and sparring bucks to determine what the bucks look like. Continue clearing deer trails, and shooting lanes. Hang portable stands for the archery season and build permanent stands for the gun season.

Age and Antler Size

If you want to see more large racked bucks in your area the first thing you have to do is use a little restraint. You must let the young bucks go so they can grow. I often hear hunters complain that they see nothing but small racked bucks in their area. These hunters often wait patiently through the season for a big racked buck to appear. Then, instead of going home empty handed they end up taking a small racked buck. If this pattern continues year after year those hunters will see nothing but young, small racked bucks, because the young deer never live long enough to grow large racks.

Deer experts used to believe it took 4 1/2 years for a whitetail buck to develop a trophy rack. It is now believed that a whitetail doesn't achieve full body size until it is about 7 1/2 years old. Until then much of the food and mineral a buck takes in is used to develop bone and muscle mass. Once the buck is fully mature excess food and mineral can be used to develop antler mass, and many hunters equate antler mass with a high score. A close look at any scoring chart will reveal that it is the number and length of tines that makes up the majority of inches needed for the rack to score high enough to enter the record books. The difference between a massive rack and a thin rack might only add 10 inches, which is 1/14 of a 140 class buck, not enough to really matter.

Milo Hanson's world record whitetail has several tines with extremely long points and main beams, with a good spread, but it is not massive. The length of the tines is what made it the new world record. Game officials aged the buck at 4 1/2. Obviously it had superior genetics, and it lived until it was 4 1/2 years old. It is conceivable that a 3 1/2 year old buck could make the archery record book but most trophy bucks are over 4 1/2 years of age. In many areas bucks don't make it past their first year, and the chances of a 2 1/2 year old buck making the book are slim. If you want to see more trophy bucks you have to let the 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 year old bucks go, so they can grow. By letting the young bucks grow, and taking does, you not only keep the herd below carrying capacity, you increase the buck to doe ratio in favor of bucks. Eventually you will have more older bucks, which may translate into more trophy deer.

This article is an excerpt from T.R. Michels' Deer Manager's Manual available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

Hunt safe, hunt ethical and God bless you and yours,

T.R.

Introduction to Responsible Deer Management

There is no question that deer herds must be managed. Increasing human populations, urban sprawl and changing land practices have led to less available deer habitat while deer herds have continued to increase, which has led to an overpopulation of deer in many areas. This has compelled wildlife managers to issue abundant doe permits each year in order to keep the deer herds within the carrying capacity of the available habitat.

The deer management practices of many wildlife agencies revolve around the need to balance the deer herds in relation to the habitat while still trying to keep deer populations high enough for hunting, with hunting as the primary method of deer reduction. The current practice of keeping deer populations high enough that they can be hunted, and the past management practice of bucks only hunting, combined with the belief by many hunters that they should only shoot bucks if they want to keep deer numbers high, is precisely the reason why there are too many deer, particularly does.

It is usually too many does (as in Minnesota and Wisconsin), not too many bucks in a deer herd, that prompts game managers to issue numerous doe permits in the hopes that enough deer will be removed to keep their numbers at acceptable levels. Eventually this becomes a vicious cycle and both the deer and the habitat suffer. The effects of this cycle generally result in low buck:doe ratios and fewer numbers of dominant breeding bucks, which leads to breeding periods that are later, and longer, than they should be, resulting in poor spring survival rates of fawns.

To add to the problem of too many deer, but not enough bucks, the interest in trophy hunting for white-tailed deer has skyrocketed in the past few years. This interest in high scoring whitetail racks by numerous hunters puts added pressure on the already depleted number of large antlered animals, and further reduces the number of available older dominant breeding bucks. Fewer numbers of bucks, particularly older dominants, result in fewer contacts between the does and the priming pheromones deposited by bucks at rubs and scrapes. These priming pheromones are thought to cause the does to come into estrus and help synchronize the rut activity between the does and the bucks. When these pheromones are absent the does may come into estrus from as early as mid-October to as late as January.

In a deer management study by Larry Marchinton between 1981 and 1986, an increase in the buck to doe ratio from 25:100 in 1981-82, to 54:100 in 1983-84 resulted in the average breeding date changing from November 11 in 1981 to October 15 in 1982, almost a month earlier than normal, and the length of the breeding period was shortened from 96 to 43 days. In another study using quality management techniques, the average breeding date occurred almost two months earlier.

This article is an excerpt from T.R. Michels' Deer Manager's Manual available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

Sex, Social Class and Antlers

According to European researcher Anthony Bubenik most ungulates (hoofed animals) have five maturity classes. These can be defined as: kids, pre-teens, teens, prime age and seniors. Each of these classes can generally be separated into male and female groups. Wildlife researcher Brown used four social classes in reference to white-tailed deer defined as: immature, subdominant floaters, group core members and dominant floaters. American researcher John Ozoga combines these terms into what more clearly defines the social hierarchy of male whitetails. These social classes are: kids (1.5 years old); subdominant floaters (1.5-2.5 years old); fraternal group members (2.5-4.5 years old that have not reached maximum body and antler size); dominant floaters (alpha or dominant breeding bucks 5.5-9.5 years old); and seniors (bucks past their physical prime, often non-breeding 8.5 year or older bucks). He further divides the fraternal group members into primary group members (3.5-4.5 years old) and secondary group members (1.5-2.5 years old).

Antlers

Ungulates include animals that produce horns or antlers such as deer, and those that don't such as horses. Generally speaking the horns or antlers of individual species are larger on males than they are on females, causing males to look different than females. This difference in appearance causes the males to be more susceptible to injury and death due to predation and to hunting pressure. Because of this increased predation and hunting pressure males that carry antlers learn how to avoid predators, usually at a young age.

Antlers are shed yearly by male animals, making it difficult to distinguish the males from the females while they males are not carrying their antlers. The absence of antlers makes the males less conspicuous and therefore less susceptible to predation, giving them a better chances of survival throughout most of the year. However, because antlers are used as a means of expressing dominance, and are used to attract females during the rut, they are often present during the rut, making antlered males highly conspicuous and susceptible to predation and hunting.

Prime age males often carry the largest antlers which makes them conspicuous and highly susceptible to predation. Senior males, even though they are not breeding, may still carry large antlers, making them also susceptible to predation. Because their advanced age does not allow senior males to escape as easily as younger males they are extremely vulnerable. Both prime age and senior males must become "smart" to avoid predation and hunting. The older the animal; the less likely that it will participate in the rut, and the more likely it will choose secluded home ranges, travel at night, and limit it's movements to avoid predation and hunting pressure.

In the case of the heavily hunted white-tailed deer, which is prized for large antlers, the males either learn to avoid hunters, or they are shot at and may die. Each year that a buck survives teaches it more about when and how to avoid hunters. Because of this older whitetail bucks are smarter and warier than younger bucks. These infrequently seen older, trophy quality, whitetail bucks usually belong to the "dominant floater" or "senior" class.

Buck Habits

While dominant floater bucks generally participate in the rut, they learn to move at times and places where they are unlikely to be seen by hunters. Senior bucks (which may produce extremely large or heavy antlers) on the other hand, do not participate in the rut and may remain in secluded areas or become primarily nocturnal in their movements. Some younger bucks may also not participate in the rut due to low social class, low testosterone levels, or other factors. I know of several evidences of these non-breeding bucks. Wildlife researcher Valerius Geist reports observing a buck that did not participate in the rut after it was beaten in battle by an older buck. Researcher John Ozoga observed a non-breeding buck that showed unusually high levels of the female progesterone hormone. During my own studies from 1993-1996 there were fewer sightings of subdominant bucks while the dominant bucks were engaged in rutting activity. A twelve point buck that I observed for five years did not participate in breeding activity and was rarely seen during the last year of the study. This leads me to believe that any buck that does not participate in the rut is less likely to be seen during fall hunting seasons.

Because bucks look different they are forced to react differently than does in order to survive. It is also safe to assume that the older the buck is the better it becomes at avoiding predation, hunting pressure and contact with humans. Because predation and hunting have the ability to affect deer health and security they can be considered as "Predatory Behavior Factors." Deer are subjected to predatory behavior throughout the year, however, they are subjected to hunting pressure primarily in the fall. Because of its seasonal nature I refer to hunting, and its associated activities that affect fall deer movement, as the "Hunting Factor." Both these factors, because they have the ability to affect the health and survival of the deer, may cause a decrease in buck sightings during the fall.

This article is an excerpt from the Whitetail Manager's Manual ($19.95 + $5.00 S&H), by T.R. Michels, available in the Trinity Mountain Outdoor Products Catalog.

Click here for more White-tailed Deer Hunting Tips.

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T.R. Michels, Trinity Mountain Outdoors, PO Box 284, Wanamingo, MN 55983
Phone: 507-824-3296 E-mail: trmichels@yahoo.com Website: www.TRMichels.com